Wednesday, November 21, 2007
Virtual Drum Lessons Has a New Name, URL
My other blog, Virtual Drum Lessons, has a new name and url. It is now James Gregory's Drum Lessons at www.jgdrumlessons.com. This change was inspired by a flyer I was making for Private Drum Lessons. I decided to put my drum blog down for people to visit, but the old url was cumbersome and I wanted something easier for visitors to check out.
Monday, November 19, 2007
Jon Walker Asks Thought Provoking Questions
Jon Walker, a friend and former teammate and schoolmate from college, asks some questions that he would like us to consider regarding relationships on Myspace. The questions are provoked from a story that he links to in the blog post here. Check out the article and the video at the link he provided. It is certainly thought provoking as Jon has posted.
Sunday, November 18, 2007
Maxgrace.com on The Christmas Police
Bill Giovannetti's recent post, The Christmas Police, is worth a read. My very first post on this blog was regarding the same issue. People in this country are taking things way too far and far too out of proportion. Bill takes the logic of the Christmas police down a path that, for the sake of consistency, the Christmas police would necessarily have to follow. He demonstrates their ludicrous reasoning quite well as he follows through with the logic. Read Bill's post; it's good--and the pictures are hilarious.
Thursday, November 15, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Conclusion
Here is the conclusion to my research paper:
Women functioned as religious leaders throughout the Roman Empire. In Greek and Roman religions women were in a position to participate as leaders, and even in Judaism women functioned as leaders. Similarly, women served as leaders in the New Testament. The first two hundred years of the early church had a positive view of women. The social norm was for women to participate in the private sphere. In the religions of the Roman Empire, we do see exceptions to this rule. However, the church was a religion that functioned in the private sphere. Christians did not assemble in public, but in houses, which were the domain of the private sphere. As such, there was no cultural problem for women to be leaders in the church. Given the early positive view of women and while the church remained in the private sphere, women served as leaders. However, largely due to the influence of Tertullian and perhaps also due to the involvement of many women in the leadership of various heresies, women were eventually kept from taking leadership positions, especially when the church moved from the private sphere into the public sphere. After that, the general view regarding women became very negative, and women were no longer permitted to participate in leadership roles that they had in the New Testament.
Tuesday, November 13, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Source 7
Coming to the end of the research, we should comb through the collection of the Apostolic Father's writings to see if we can find anything else that might illumine our topic. Michael Holmes Greek-English version, The Apostolic Fathers: Greek texts and english translations, will be suitable for the task.
The Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (1 Clement), late first century
The Letter of Ignatius to Polycarp, early second century
The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, early second century
Women were not spoken of in a negative way by the apostolic fathers. Rather, they were exhorted to love Christ, to love their husbands and to love everyone in purity. It was not until later into the late second and early third century that women began to be spoken of negatively, which was when the church began to move from the private sphere to the public sphere in the Roman Empire.
The Letter of the Romans to the Corinthians (1 Clement), late first century
1.3 - ". . . you charged the women to perform all their duties with a blameless, reverent, and pure conscience, cherishing their own husbands, as is right; and you taught them to abide by the rule of obedience, and to manage the affairs of their household with dignity and all discretion" (pp. 29, 31).
21.6-7 - ". . . Let us guide our women toward that which is good: let them reveal a disposition to purity worthy of admiration; let them exhibit a sincere desire to be gentle; let them demonstrate by their silence the moderation of their tongue; let them show their love, without partiality and in holiness, equally toward all those who fear God" (p. 55).
The Letter of Ignatius to Polycarp, early second century
5.1 - ". . . Tell my sisters to love the Lord and to be content with their husbands physically and spiritually. In the same way command my brothers in the name of Jesus Christ to love their wives, as the Lord loves the church" (p. 197).
The Letter of Polycarp to the Philippians, early second century
4.2 - "Then instruct your wives to continue in the faith delivered to them and in love and purity, cherishing their own husbands in all fidelity and loving all others equally in all chastity, and to instruct the children with instruction that leads to the fear of God" (p. 211).
4.3 - "The widows must think soberly about the faith of the Lord and pray unceasingly for everyone and stay far away from all malicious talk, slander, false testimony, love of money, and any kind of evil, knowing that they are God's altar, and that all sacrifices are carefully inspected and nothing escapes him, whether thoughts or intentions or 'secrets of the heart'" (p. 211).
5.3 - ". . . The young women must maintain a pure and blameless conscience" (p. 213).
Women were not spoken of in a negative way by the apostolic fathers. Rather, they were exhorted to love Christ, to love their husbands and to love everyone in purity. It was not until later into the late second and early third century that women began to be spoken of negatively, which was when the church began to move from the private sphere to the public sphere in the Roman Empire.
Early Church Research Paper - Source 6
We have seen that women were indeed oppressed but not exactly as we thought during the time of Jesus and during the time of the New Testament, but as attitudes and opinions began to harden in the late first and second century, those most influential people in the church brought the Christian religion from the private sphere to the public sphere, as is evident in Tertullian's writings. This movement from the private to the public brought about the oppression of women that kept them from serving as leaders in the church. Elizabeth Clark's Women in the Early Church in the Message of the Fathers of the Church series will help to further demonstrate the general attitude regarding women by the church fathers.
Clark quotes Irenaeus' Against Heresies where it contrasts Eve with Mary (III, 22, 4, p. 38). This contrast is made during the late second century. It is important to note that at the late second century there is not a virulent disposition regarding women in leadership. Irenaeus shows no contempt or disregard for women in general in this passage. In fact, he concludes that what Eve brought upon humanity Mary has loosed (Against Heresies, III, 22, 4, p. 38). Although a woman has entered all of humanity into sin, Irenaeus argues that it was another woman who reversed its effects. No other church father quoted in Women in the Early Church has this understanding. Instead, as does Augustine (Literal Commentary on Genesis, XI, 42, pp. 40-1), Chrysostom (Homily 26 on 1 Corinthians, 2, p. 42) and Ambrose (On Paradise, IV, 24, pp. 29-30), for example, they only see as far as the failure of Eve and utilize that fact to teach the submission of women in the church. Clark suggests that the trend became a harsh oppression against women leadership because heresies had large involvements of women leadership under whom many were led astray (p. 160). Since women were known for leading Christians astray, the church fathers oppressed women leadership in general.
Clark quotes Irenaeus' Against Heresies where it contrasts Eve with Mary (III, 22, 4, p. 38). This contrast is made during the late second century. It is important to note that at the late second century there is not a virulent disposition regarding women in leadership. Irenaeus shows no contempt or disregard for women in general in this passage. In fact, he concludes that what Eve brought upon humanity Mary has loosed (Against Heresies, III, 22, 4, p. 38). Although a woman has entered all of humanity into sin, Irenaeus argues that it was another woman who reversed its effects. No other church father quoted in Women in the Early Church has this understanding. Instead, as does Augustine (Literal Commentary on Genesis, XI, 42, pp. 40-1), Chrysostom (Homily 26 on 1 Corinthians, 2, p. 42) and Ambrose (On Paradise, IV, 24, pp. 29-30), for example, they only see as far as the failure of Eve and utilize that fact to teach the submission of women in the church. Clark suggests that the trend became a harsh oppression against women leadership because heresies had large involvements of women leadership under whom many were led astray (p. 160). Since women were known for leading Christians astray, the church fathers oppressed women leadership in general.
Monday, November 12, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Source 5
In all of the research I have done so far, it looks like I am going to write my research paper as a historical description of how women served in the early church and compare it to how women served in the New Testament and around the Roman Empire during the first century.
In the Roman Empire women were religious leaders. In the areas by Palestine, such as Alexandria, during the first century there was a great allowance for women to take part as leaders in religion, so much so that they were seen as equals with males. The general ideal was for women to function in the private sphere, but all throughout the Roman Empire there were indeed exceptions to this ideal, even in Judaism, where women served various religions as leaders and had rather important roles.
We have seen in the New Testament that there were several women who were leaders in the church. Outside of the New Testament we do have records of some women being very influential as leaders in the very early stages of the early church. However, the church fathers took on a very dim perception about the women's involvement in church leadership. Let's further explore the roles of women in the early church as well as the time of the early church as described by the early church documents that we have. For such documents we are now turning to When Women Were Priests: Women's leadership in the Early Church & the scandal of their subordination in the rise of Christianity by Karen Torjesen.
Torjesen's argument concerning the church and the private sphere is helpful. She writes that for the first two hundred years of the church Christianity belonged to the private sphere (p. 37). Christians did not assemble in large congregations, but rather, in house churches. Torjesen writes, ". . . Christianity was essentially a religion of the private sphere, practiced in the private space of the household rather than the public space of a temple. Its concerns were the domestic life of its community rather than the political life of the city" (p. 37). Since it belonged to the private sphere, it makes sense that women would have a prominent role as leaders throughout the church up to the middle of the third century, which was when the church began taking the form of a public religion (p. 37). As it began entering the public sphere, women leaders were forced into "the same subjugation of women in the churches as prevailed in Greco-Roman society at large" (p. 38).
The idea here is that during the time of Jesus and following women were expected to function in the private sphere, although there were exceptions in which women did lead throughout the Roman Empire, and with the Cult of Isis they were thought as equals with men. When Christianity came along women did serve as leaders, since Christianity functioned in the private sphere, and we have evidence for women as leaders in and outside the New Testament to show for this function. However, when the Church began to go public, practices changed, and women were kept from leadership roles. We noted before that during the majority of the first century women were not oppressed, but in the late first century and following women began to be oppressed. It seems that Christianity was able to accept women's leadership during the second century since it functioned in the private sphere, although there was still opposition and negative opinion regarding their leadership even in the private sphere, but in the middle of the third century, the involvement of women as church leaders was destroyed. It seems as though the change was like a flip of a switch.
In regards to how house churches ran (we are going back to understand more of the private sphere in which the church existed in for two centuries), Torjesen is helpful. Church leadership was modeled after household management, which "required experience in the management of people as well as of goods" (pp. 76-7). Torjesen writes the following paragraph:
In regards to the transition of leadership in the church, Torjesen writes this paragraph:
Tertullian was quite hostile against women leadership in the church, but through his writings bearing such hostility we find that the church communities he was familiar with had women who taught, baptized, exorcised and healed (p. 158). Indeed, Tertullian was the first to argue Christianity in judicial or political terms when he articulated his understanding of Christianity through the language, metaphors and paradigms from the public sphere of the Roman Empire (p. 160). His rejection of women's leadership in the church was a reflection of Roman society's values that women belong to the private sphere (p. 160).
It was with Tertullian that the church became a legal entity that was unified by a common law and a common discipline (pp. 162-3). It was Tertullian who modeled clergy after the ruling senatorial class, so that the honor and authority of the church was represented by the clergy, which in turn made it imperative for the clergy to exemplify the moral discipline of the church (p. 163). By being clergy, members of that office held particular rights according to Tertullian, such as the right to baptize, teach, offer the Eucharist, and restore to fellowship after penance, so that what had originally been ministered had now become legal rights and privileges (p. 163). Since Tertullian said that women cannot baptize, we know he forbade women to be in the clergy and even the laity, which was a leadership group of the church being subject to the clergy and had fewer rights and privileges (p. 164). The argument that around the third century the church exited functioning in the private sphere and entered functioning in the public sphere is evident in Tertullian's argument in On the Veiling of Virgins. Torjesen gives us Tertullian's argument with the following words:
Thanks to Tertullian at the beginning of the third century the church shifted from the private to the public sphere, which resulted in women no longer being allowed to function as leaders in the church.
In the Roman Empire women were religious leaders. In the areas by Palestine, such as Alexandria, during the first century there was a great allowance for women to take part as leaders in religion, so much so that they were seen as equals with males. The general ideal was for women to function in the private sphere, but all throughout the Roman Empire there were indeed exceptions to this ideal, even in Judaism, where women served various religions as leaders and had rather important roles.
We have seen in the New Testament that there were several women who were leaders in the church. Outside of the New Testament we do have records of some women being very influential as leaders in the very early stages of the early church. However, the church fathers took on a very dim perception about the women's involvement in church leadership. Let's further explore the roles of women in the early church as well as the time of the early church as described by the early church documents that we have. For such documents we are now turning to When Women Were Priests: Women's leadership in the Early Church & the scandal of their subordination in the rise of Christianity by Karen Torjesen.
Torjesen's argument concerning the church and the private sphere is helpful. She writes that for the first two hundred years of the church Christianity belonged to the private sphere (p. 37). Christians did not assemble in large congregations, but rather, in house churches. Torjesen writes, ". . . Christianity was essentially a religion of the private sphere, practiced in the private space of the household rather than the public space of a temple. Its concerns were the domestic life of its community rather than the political life of the city" (p. 37). Since it belonged to the private sphere, it makes sense that women would have a prominent role as leaders throughout the church up to the middle of the third century, which was when the church began taking the form of a public religion (p. 37). As it began entering the public sphere, women leaders were forced into "the same subjugation of women in the churches as prevailed in Greco-Roman society at large" (p. 38).
The idea here is that during the time of Jesus and following women were expected to function in the private sphere, although there were exceptions in which women did lead throughout the Roman Empire, and with the Cult of Isis they were thought as equals with men. When Christianity came along women did serve as leaders, since Christianity functioned in the private sphere, and we have evidence for women as leaders in and outside the New Testament to show for this function. However, when the Church began to go public, practices changed, and women were kept from leadership roles. We noted before that during the majority of the first century women were not oppressed, but in the late first century and following women began to be oppressed. It seems that Christianity was able to accept women's leadership during the second century since it functioned in the private sphere, although there was still opposition and negative opinion regarding their leadership even in the private sphere, but in the middle of the third century, the involvement of women as church leaders was destroyed. It seems as though the change was like a flip of a switch.
In regards to how house churches ran (we are going back to understand more of the private sphere in which the church existed in for two centuries), Torjesen is helpful. Church leadership was modeled after household management, which "required experience in the management of people as well as of goods" (pp. 76-7). Torjesen writes the following paragraph:
So long as church leadership continued to model itself on the familiar role of household manager, there was no cultural barrier to women assuming leadership roles. First- and second-century Christians, familiar with the authority and leadership role of the female head of household, would have perceived women's leadership within the church as not only acceptable but natural. The early church's specific leadership functions posed no barriers to woemen, whose skills and experiences as managers amply prepared them to assume the duties of teaching, disciplining, nurturing, and administrating material resources. This would have been the case as long as Christian communities remained closely identified with the social structures of the private sphere. (p. 82)
In regards to the transition of leadership in the church, Torjesen writes this paragraph:
As the architectural space in which Christians worshiped became a more public space, and as the models for leadership were drawn increasingly from public life, women's leadership become more controversial. Because the public-versus-private gender ideology restricted women's activities in public life, the new leaders of the church were not as comfortable with women's leadership in the churches. (p. 157)
Tertullian was quite hostile against women leadership in the church, but through his writings bearing such hostility we find that the church communities he was familiar with had women who taught, baptized, exorcised and healed (p. 158). Indeed, Tertullian was the first to argue Christianity in judicial or political terms when he articulated his understanding of Christianity through the language, metaphors and paradigms from the public sphere of the Roman Empire (p. 160). His rejection of women's leadership in the church was a reflection of Roman society's values that women belong to the private sphere (p. 160).
It was with Tertullian that the church became a legal entity that was unified by a common law and a common discipline (pp. 162-3). It was Tertullian who modeled clergy after the ruling senatorial class, so that the honor and authority of the church was represented by the clergy, which in turn made it imperative for the clergy to exemplify the moral discipline of the church (p. 163). By being clergy, members of that office held particular rights according to Tertullian, such as the right to baptize, teach, offer the Eucharist, and restore to fellowship after penance, so that what had originally been ministered had now become legal rights and privileges (p. 163). Since Tertullian said that women cannot baptize, we know he forbade women to be in the clergy and even the laity, which was a leadership group of the church being subject to the clergy and had fewer rights and privileges (p. 164). The argument that around the third century the church exited functioning in the private sphere and entered functioning in the public sphere is evident in Tertullian's argument in On the Veiling of Virgins. Torjesen gives us Tertullian's argument with the following words:
"Young women," he scolded, "you wear your veils out on the streets, so you should wear them in the church, you wear them when you are among strangers, then wear them among your brothers (13, p. 165)Torjesen tops off the quote with another: "If you won't wear your veils in church, then I challenge you to go around in public without them" (On the Veiling of Virgins, 14, pp. 165-6). These quotations indicate that Tertullian was arguing that the time of the private sphere for the church was over and that the church was now "no different from the marketplace" as part of the public sphere (p. 166).
Thanks to Tertullian at the beginning of the third century the church shifted from the private to the public sphere, which resulted in women no longer being allowed to function as leaders in the church.
Sunday, November 11, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Source 4
Now that I have seen that women did in fact fill religious leadership roles throughout the Roman Empire, including in the the church during the New Testament times, despite the negative opinions of women, I want to look at some primary sources for the views of the early church fathers regarding women. Eventually I will compare what the primary sources reveal with what the New Testament reports and draw some conclusions. But first, to the primary resources.
Patricia Miller has combined a large series of primary sources in Women in Early Christianity: Translations from Greek texts that deal with the views of women in the early church. I am going to use this book to reference the writings of the early church fathers.
Miller does acknowledge that when ancient writers wrote of women, they mostly wrote in regards to "women's roles as teachers, prophets, martyrs, widows, deaconesses, ascetics, virgins, patrons, wives, mothers and sisters, and metaphors" either positively or negatively (p. 1). Let's limit our scope to religious roles.
Miller notes that public teaching by women was not permitted in the early church, and women who attempted to take such positions were labeled as heretics (p. 17). In Against Heresies (1.25.6), Irenaeus looked down upon Marcellina--a woman teacher whom he claimed to have "caused the downfall of many" (p. 17). Miller reports that Marcellina apparently taught a form of Christianity that upheld equality among men and women along with some other ideas that went against conventional standards (p. 17). It is from this backdrop that Irenaeus makes his negative remark. Marcellina and Irenaeus were from the second century. In the first century women did function in leadership roles throughout the Roman Empire--especially in the church during the time of the New Testament. By the time the second century rolled around, things seem to have changed.
Although women were not permitted to teach publicly in the early church, they were able to and they did establish and teach monastic communities for women. Melania the Younger and her husband Pinian built monasteries on the Mount of Olives, and she was a noted teacher around the time of the fifth century (p. 19). In the fourth century Macrina founded a monastery for women and was noted for her teaching (pp. 22-3). Gregory of Nyssa, one of the Cappadocian fathers and one of the great church fathers called Macrina, who was in fact his sister, his teacher (cf. p. 23, On the Soul and the Resurrection, "Dialogue about grief and death," for example).
Evidence and opinion is mixed. Women were not permitted to teach in public, and yet they did teach in monasteries in the early church. Even the views of the church fathers are mixed. Some thought highly of women as teachers and others were upset by the thought.
It is true that the typical view of the church fathers was not favorable, however. In the third century Origen quoted 1 Cor. 14:35 ("It is shameful for a woman to speak in church"), saying that anything and everything she might say is shameful--even if what she is good--"because it comes from the mouth of a woman" (Commentary on 1 Corinthians, fragment 74, p. 29). John Chrysostom, who taught around the late fourth and early fifth centuries, wrote in his discourse on Genesis 1 that Eve wrongfully used her authority and so was punished to a state of subordination (Discourse 4 on Genesis 1, p. 30). He looked to Paul's words in 1 Tim. 2:11 ("Let the woman learn in silence, in all subjection"), asking, "Do you see how he, too, submits the woman to the man?" (Ibid., p. 30). He said that Paul instructed women to not teach a man because Eve taught Adam poorly once and for all (Ibid., p. 30). Therefore, he thought that Paul taught that women should be "in silence" because of their inability to properly teach as was evident in Genesis 3 (p. 30). The Didascalia apostolorum, a third century document, speaks against women as teachers, ending the argument with these words: "For if it were required that women should teach, our Master himself would have commanded these to give instruction with us" (3.6, p. 31).
Women as teachers for the church fathers was generally looked down upon because of the perception of women as being the deceived ones and the initial ones to commit sin, and also because Jesus never commanded for women to teach.
Miller notes that women did function as prophets in two movements during the second century (p. 31). With the disciples of Marcus, a man who was identified and condemned as "gnostic" by his opponents, women prophesied or at least they thought they were prophesying (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 1.13.1-3, p. 32-3). With the Montanists, several oracles of the women prophets were recorded by their opponents Eusebius and Epiphanius. Eusebius records an oracle given by a woman, Maximilla (Ecclesiastical History, 5.16.17, p. 34). Epiphanius records oracles from Maximilla and Priscilla or Quintilla (Panarion, 48.2.4, 48.12.4, 48.13.1, and 49.1, pp. 34-35). Hippolytus indicates that Priscilla and Maximmilla were perceived by the Montanists as prophetesses (Refutation of All Heresies, 8.19, p. 35).
Miller notes that women did hold the office of widows (p. 49). By the time the third century came, this office had specific qualifications (p. 50) and particular duties (p. 51). Widows were to fast frequently and pray (Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition 11; 25; 27, p. 51). Some of their other functions and qualifications included, but was not limited to, the following: they were to be of a particular age; they were to assist the younger women; they were to be meek, quiet and gentle; they were not to teach or gossip; and they were to be disciplined (Didascalia apostolurm, 3.1-11; 4.5-8, pp. 51-61).
Miller notes that women held the office of deaconess by the third century (p. 62). Women were appointed as deaconesses--the honorary office of female helpers for the bishop--to serve other women (Didascalia apostolorum, 2.26; 3.12, p. 62). They had a specific function to teach and instruct the newly baptized women (Ibid., p. 62).
Women were not permitted to perform many of the ecclesiastical duties (p. 65). They could not baptize, since, it was argued, Jesus was not baptized by a woman (Didascalia apostolorum, 3.9, p. 65). Epiphanius said that women could not even offer the gospel throughout the world because this task was given to the apostles and bishops who were all males, and no woman could ever take the episcopate or presbyterate offices since no woman was ever appointed as one in the New Testament (Panarion, 79.2,3-4,1, p. 67).
These documents indicate that women did take leadership roles during the time of the early church, but when they did they were usually declared to be heretics, or they were looked down upon. The second century onward church fathers' general view was for women to be silent, and if they were to serve they were only to serve other women.
Patricia Miller has combined a large series of primary sources in Women in Early Christianity: Translations from Greek texts that deal with the views of women in the early church. I am going to use this book to reference the writings of the early church fathers.
Miller does acknowledge that when ancient writers wrote of women, they mostly wrote in regards to "women's roles as teachers, prophets, martyrs, widows, deaconesses, ascetics, virgins, patrons, wives, mothers and sisters, and metaphors" either positively or negatively (p. 1). Let's limit our scope to religious roles.
Miller notes that public teaching by women was not permitted in the early church, and women who attempted to take such positions were labeled as heretics (p. 17). In Against Heresies (1.25.6), Irenaeus looked down upon Marcellina--a woman teacher whom he claimed to have "caused the downfall of many" (p. 17). Miller reports that Marcellina apparently taught a form of Christianity that upheld equality among men and women along with some other ideas that went against conventional standards (p. 17). It is from this backdrop that Irenaeus makes his negative remark. Marcellina and Irenaeus were from the second century. In the first century women did function in leadership roles throughout the Roman Empire--especially in the church during the time of the New Testament. By the time the second century rolled around, things seem to have changed.
Although women were not permitted to teach publicly in the early church, they were able to and they did establish and teach monastic communities for women. Melania the Younger and her husband Pinian built monasteries on the Mount of Olives, and she was a noted teacher around the time of the fifth century (p. 19). In the fourth century Macrina founded a monastery for women and was noted for her teaching (pp. 22-3). Gregory of Nyssa, one of the Cappadocian fathers and one of the great church fathers called Macrina, who was in fact his sister, his teacher (cf. p. 23, On the Soul and the Resurrection, "Dialogue about grief and death," for example).
Evidence and opinion is mixed. Women were not permitted to teach in public, and yet they did teach in monasteries in the early church. Even the views of the church fathers are mixed. Some thought highly of women as teachers and others were upset by the thought.
It is true that the typical view of the church fathers was not favorable, however. In the third century Origen quoted 1 Cor. 14:35 ("It is shameful for a woman to speak in church"), saying that anything and everything she might say is shameful--even if what she is good--"because it comes from the mouth of a woman" (Commentary on 1 Corinthians, fragment 74, p. 29). John Chrysostom, who taught around the late fourth and early fifth centuries, wrote in his discourse on Genesis 1 that Eve wrongfully used her authority and so was punished to a state of subordination (Discourse 4 on Genesis 1, p. 30). He looked to Paul's words in 1 Tim. 2:11 ("Let the woman learn in silence, in all subjection"), asking, "Do you see how he, too, submits the woman to the man?" (Ibid., p. 30). He said that Paul instructed women to not teach a man because Eve taught Adam poorly once and for all (Ibid., p. 30). Therefore, he thought that Paul taught that women should be "in silence" because of their inability to properly teach as was evident in Genesis 3 (p. 30). The Didascalia apostolorum, a third century document, speaks against women as teachers, ending the argument with these words: "For if it were required that women should teach, our Master himself would have commanded these to give instruction with us" (3.6, p. 31).
Women as teachers for the church fathers was generally looked down upon because of the perception of women as being the deceived ones and the initial ones to commit sin, and also because Jesus never commanded for women to teach.
Miller notes that women did function as prophets in two movements during the second century (p. 31). With the disciples of Marcus, a man who was identified and condemned as "gnostic" by his opponents, women prophesied or at least they thought they were prophesying (Irenaeus, Against Heresies, 1.13.1-3, p. 32-3). With the Montanists, several oracles of the women prophets were recorded by their opponents Eusebius and Epiphanius. Eusebius records an oracle given by a woman, Maximilla (Ecclesiastical History, 5.16.17, p. 34). Epiphanius records oracles from Maximilla and Priscilla or Quintilla (Panarion, 48.2.4, 48.12.4, 48.13.1, and 49.1, pp. 34-35). Hippolytus indicates that Priscilla and Maximmilla were perceived by the Montanists as prophetesses (Refutation of All Heresies, 8.19, p. 35).
Miller notes that women did hold the office of widows (p. 49). By the time the third century came, this office had specific qualifications (p. 50) and particular duties (p. 51). Widows were to fast frequently and pray (Hippolytus, The Apostolic Tradition 11; 25; 27, p. 51). Some of their other functions and qualifications included, but was not limited to, the following: they were to be of a particular age; they were to assist the younger women; they were to be meek, quiet and gentle; they were not to teach or gossip; and they were to be disciplined (Didascalia apostolurm, 3.1-11; 4.5-8, pp. 51-61).
Miller notes that women held the office of deaconess by the third century (p. 62). Women were appointed as deaconesses--the honorary office of female helpers for the bishop--to serve other women (Didascalia apostolorum, 2.26; 3.12, p. 62). They had a specific function to teach and instruct the newly baptized women (Ibid., p. 62).
Women were not permitted to perform many of the ecclesiastical duties (p. 65). They could not baptize, since, it was argued, Jesus was not baptized by a woman (Didascalia apostolorum, 3.9, p. 65). Epiphanius said that women could not even offer the gospel throughout the world because this task was given to the apostles and bishops who were all males, and no woman could ever take the episcopate or presbyterate offices since no woman was ever appointed as one in the New Testament (Panarion, 79.2,3-4,1, p. 67).
These documents indicate that women did take leadership roles during the time of the early church, but when they did they were usually declared to be heretics, or they were looked down upon. The second century onward church fathers' general view was for women to be silent, and if they were to serve they were only to serve other women.
Halo 3 on the 360
I am having a great time playing Halo 3 on my new Xbox 360. I am not all that good, but I do enjoy playing it as I like a good challenge. The picture I have posted here is from one of the games that I played. Pictured here is me beating down my purple opponent. He fell straight back like an upside down Superman, which caused all of his weaponry to go flying. I took the picture using the Theater function on the game, which allows you to watch your last played game and take video of any part of that round or to take a screenshot. I did both, but I can't get the video that I took of me throwing a game winning grenade to become the victor of that round. The screenshot uploads onto the Bungie.net server, so I quickly grabbed it off of my Bungie profile's page and saved it as my desktop, which is what you see in the posted picture.
Saturday, November 10, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Source 3b
Continuing on in my reading from Women Leaders and the Church (cf. Source 3a), I want to see how women functioned in the New Testament. The New Testament is a first century document. Although it is not considered to be part of the early church as a historical period, it is what precedes the early church and must be taken into consideration.
So far we have considered the opinions regarding women in the first century and in the general view or expectation of women in the late church fathers, and we have also considered the role of women throughout the Roman Empire in Jewish, Greek and Roman religions. We will now turn to the role of women in the New Testament.
Belleville identifies that women functioned as patrons--financial supporters--of the house churches (p. 50). It is likely that in their role as patrons they provided a meeting place, their homes, for the church to assemble at, which follows suit with the patronage practices of the Roman Empire (p. 52). There are six accounts of patrons in the New Testament--five of which are women or at least couples, which are Acts 12:12; 16:14-15; Rom. 16:3-5; 1 Cor. 16:19; Col. 4:15; and Philem. 2 (p. 52). When a patrons opened their homes for the group to assemble in, they were charged with the leadership of that group, including their legal liability (p. 52). Noteworthy in the New Testament is the first two verses in Philemon: "Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, to Philemon our dear friend and fellow-worker, to Apphia our sister, to Archippus our fellow-soldier and to the church that meets in your home" (Philemon 1-2). Apphia is listed as one of the recipients of this letter, which means that she was a leader of the church at Colossae (p. 53). Paul addresses the "church in your home." Your is plural, indicating that the three recipients mentioned are the leaders of that church (p. 53). Belleville notes that women were also apostles, at least in the sense of possessors of the gift of apostleship and church planters (p. 54). Women were also prophets (p. 56). As women prophets, they would have served to convict sin, to instruct, to exhort, to encourage, and to guide in the decision-making process (p. 56). The gift of prophecy was "a recognized leadership role in the church" since it was tied with revelation (p. 57). It is significant that Paul places the prophetic role of women on par with the prophetic role of men so that "[w]omen functioned in a highly visible leadership capacity" (p. 57). Women also served as teachers (p. 58). Teaching in the New Testament was not an authoritative role and it was not referenced in terms of public and private spheres (p. 58). In fact, the entire congregation of the church in Colossae was exhorted to teach each other (Col. 3:16; p. 58). The author of Hebrews expected that his recipients should have all been teachers in the faith (Heb. 5:12; p. 58). However, teaching for women was limited by culture. Belleville notes, "Both women learners and teachers were a rarity" (p. 58). There were relatively few women teachers during the time of the New Testament (p. 59). Yet, no female or male is specifically given the title of teacher in the New Testament (p. 59). Furthermore, teaching was associated with the prophets, but women were prophets in the same way that men were except for their attire (pp. 57, 59). In the time of the New Testament, there was no such thing as an informal and private or formal and public sphere of teaching, so any attempt to appeal to such spheres in regards to women as teaching in their role as prophets is, as Belleville states, "anachronistic" (p. 59). Women were also evangelists or missionaries (p. 59). The role of evangelists was at least a leadership role in Philippi where Euodia and Syntyche are identified as the leaders of the church and are called evangelists (p. 60). Women also served as deacons (p. 61). Belleville says that to be a deacon is to possess the gift of service or serving, and women, such as Phoebe, functioned as deacons for the church (p. 61). Women were also worship leaders as people of prayer in cooperation with the community of which they were a part of (pp. 64-5). They were also ministering widows that functioned to support various needs in the church (pp. 65-7). Women were sometimes multigifted and were able to fill multiple leadership roles in the church, like Priscilla who was a teacher, patron, evangelist and perhaps also an overseer (p. 68).
Women served leadership functions in the times of the New Testament. In terms of religion we can say that women had a significant leadership role in the church during the first century. Likewise, women had a significant role in religions throughout the Roman Empire during the first century. Religiously speaking, therefore, women in the first century could serve in leadership positions.
So far we have considered the opinions regarding women in the first century and in the general view or expectation of women in the late church fathers, and we have also considered the role of women throughout the Roman Empire in Jewish, Greek and Roman religions. We will now turn to the role of women in the New Testament.
Belleville identifies that women functioned as patrons--financial supporters--of the house churches (p. 50). It is likely that in their role as patrons they provided a meeting place, their homes, for the church to assemble at, which follows suit with the patronage practices of the Roman Empire (p. 52). There are six accounts of patrons in the New Testament--five of which are women or at least couples, which are Acts 12:12; 16:14-15; Rom. 16:3-5; 1 Cor. 16:19; Col. 4:15; and Philem. 2 (p. 52). When a patrons opened their homes for the group to assemble in, they were charged with the leadership of that group, including their legal liability (p. 52). Noteworthy in the New Testament is the first two verses in Philemon: "Paul, a prisoner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy our brother, to Philemon our dear friend and fellow-worker, to Apphia our sister, to Archippus our fellow-soldier and to the church that meets in your home" (Philemon 1-2). Apphia is listed as one of the recipients of this letter, which means that she was a leader of the church at Colossae (p. 53). Paul addresses the "church in your home." Your is plural, indicating that the three recipients mentioned are the leaders of that church (p. 53). Belleville notes that women were also apostles, at least in the sense of possessors of the gift of apostleship and church planters (p. 54). Women were also prophets (p. 56). As women prophets, they would have served to convict sin, to instruct, to exhort, to encourage, and to guide in the decision-making process (p. 56). The gift of prophecy was "a recognized leadership role in the church" since it was tied with revelation (p. 57). It is significant that Paul places the prophetic role of women on par with the prophetic role of men so that "[w]omen functioned in a highly visible leadership capacity" (p. 57). Women also served as teachers (p. 58). Teaching in the New Testament was not an authoritative role and it was not referenced in terms of public and private spheres (p. 58). In fact, the entire congregation of the church in Colossae was exhorted to teach each other (Col. 3:16; p. 58). The author of Hebrews expected that his recipients should have all been teachers in the faith (Heb. 5:12; p. 58). However, teaching for women was limited by culture. Belleville notes, "Both women learners and teachers were a rarity" (p. 58). There were relatively few women teachers during the time of the New Testament (p. 59). Yet, no female or male is specifically given the title of teacher in the New Testament (p. 59). Furthermore, teaching was associated with the prophets, but women were prophets in the same way that men were except for their attire (pp. 57, 59). In the time of the New Testament, there was no such thing as an informal and private or formal and public sphere of teaching, so any attempt to appeal to such spheres in regards to women as teaching in their role as prophets is, as Belleville states, "anachronistic" (p. 59). Women were also evangelists or missionaries (p. 59). The role of evangelists was at least a leadership role in Philippi where Euodia and Syntyche are identified as the leaders of the church and are called evangelists (p. 60). Women also served as deacons (p. 61). Belleville says that to be a deacon is to possess the gift of service or serving, and women, such as Phoebe, functioned as deacons for the church (p. 61). Women were also worship leaders as people of prayer in cooperation with the community of which they were a part of (pp. 64-5). They were also ministering widows that functioned to support various needs in the church (pp. 65-7). Women were sometimes multigifted and were able to fill multiple leadership roles in the church, like Priscilla who was a teacher, patron, evangelist and perhaps also an overseer (p. 68).
Women served leadership functions in the times of the New Testament. In terms of religion we can say that women had a significant leadership role in the church during the first century. Likewise, women had a significant role in religions throughout the Roman Empire during the first century. Religiously speaking, therefore, women in the first century could serve in leadership positions.
Early Church Research Paper - Source 3a
It seems to me that the early church had no problem at all with women in leadership, but over time the church adopted the cultural mindset regarding women--probably unintentionally through enculturation. I want to look at the views of women in general from the first through sixth centuries and see if that informs my thesis or denies my thesis (And if it does, I have a lot of changing to do!).
Linda Belleville's book, Women Leaders and the Church: Three crucial questions, gives information on the understanding of women in Judaism, and Greek and Roman society. Understanding how women were perceived in these areas or cultures of the ancient world will help us to understand what kind of thought environment the early church existed in.
Even though women had less religious involvement than Greek or Roman women in general, there were still opportunities or at least the possibility for women to serve their communities as leaders (p. 20). Women were expected to function in the private, not public, realm of society, but outside of Palestine Jewish women had more opportunities to serve as leaders (p. 20). Belleville reports that there are "synagogue records, burial markers, inscriptions, and works of art" that show a significant number of Jewish women who had a significant role in their congregations (pp. 20-1). She also reports that during the late first century women began seeing less of a role in the public sphere (p. 21). It was during that time that their societal and religious roles became more limited (p. 21). She boldly states that it is quite difficult to find any Jewish texts that forbid women to teach during the first century (p. 21). Her statements demonstrate that for Judaism around the late first century (the social-historical context for the beginning of the early church) women were beginning to be taken out of the public sphere and limited to the private, but it was not actually prohibited for women to teach or have authority. In fact, Belleville notes that women were technically "qualified to function in virtually every way men functioned" (p. 22). However, as Belleville also notes, being qualified does not mean they were encouraged (p. 22). Even though they were able, opinions were expressed, stating that women should not be permitted to publicly read Scripture (p. 22).
Yet, women in Judaism functioned in leadership roles such as financial donors of local synagogues (p. 23). Records demonstrate that women who supported the synagogues rose to significant status in their communities (pp. 23-4). Women could also be heads of synagogues and even elders in Judaism (pp. 24-5). Belleville notes that it was a distinct privilege to be named the head of a synagogue, which was the equivalent to third in command next to scholars and "great ones of the congregation," respectively (pp. 24-5). However, the responsibilities of the synagogue ruler included the upkeep of the synagogue building, the donors and the synagogue ruler were frequently connected (p. 25). To be a donor would be an authority at least in part alongside of the synagogue ruler. The synagogue ruler was also in charge of planning and leading the worship service (p. 25). If a woman was a synagogue ruler, then she would have had the charge of directing the worship service in the synagogue. The synagogue ruler was also responsible for, it seems, "keeping the congregation faithful to the law" according to Luke 13:10-17 (p. 25). In terms of women leading as elders, there are seven tomb inscriptions that identify women as elders (p. 25). The word, elder, refers to a particular ruling group that had particular leadership roles, which included ruling on legal matters of the welfare for the community and functioning as the town council (pp. 25-6). The elders' primary function was community leader in Judaism (p. 26). Women could also function as priestesses (p. 27). Precisely what this means is unclear, but we do know that women could serve priestly functions without ever being given the title of priestess in the Old Testament, so it is possible that women were given the title of priestess to note their liturgical contributions (p. 27). If a women came from a priestly lineage, it is possible that she would have been given the opportunity to read Scripture for the worship service in synagogues out of respect (p. 28). Women were given the title of mother of the synagogue as well (p. 28). It is unclear what the mothers (and fathers) of the synagogue did as leaders, but the father of the synagogue did have a higher rank than a "high-ranking official of the local Jewish ruling council" (p. 29). Other than that, we know very little about how this father or mother of the synagogue leadership role functioned. Although it was not to the same degree as men, Jewish women were capable of functioning as leaders and they sometimes did.
In Greek and Roman society, women were expected to be actively involved in the local and religious communities (p. 31). The distinction between the public and privates spheres was not as well-defined in Greek and Roman society, so, though the persuasion of wealthy women, women gained a growing popularity on par with men in religion (p. 31). Women served as priestesses in the cults throughout the Roman Empire, which meant that they were, alongside priests, responsible for the sanctuary rituals and ceremonies, its maintenance, and its protection (p. 33). Liturgically, Belleville states that they were also responsible for ritual sacrifices, pronouncing the prayers, and presiding at the festivals of the deity (p. 33). In some cases, women were identified as high priestesses, which is particularly important since the leadership role of high priest was only given to one male leader in a single city (p. 33). In terms of modern categories of leadership, women served administrative, benefactory and ministerial roles throughout the pagan cults of the Roman Empire (p. 34). Wealth and office were tied together for women in the Roman Empire (p. 34). Belleville notes that it was expected for the top priestly offices to have the financial resources to cover civic and religious events (p. 34). Women served in the social, political, and financial services of the Roman Empire alongside of their male counterparts (p. 35). Therefore, women were in a position to be in power in the Roman Empire (p. 35). Keeping this information in mind alongside of the role of women in the cult of Isis in which they were equal to men, we must realize that in the first century women were not as religiously limited as we sometimes think (p. 37). In other words, as Belleville puts it, "[I]n the first century A.D. the religious cults led the way in modeling male and female parity" (p. 38).
When we consider the negative opinions regarding women in Judaism and also the frowning of men on women for breaking out of the private sphere, we first think that women were oppressed in the first century. However, despite negative thought-trains, women still functioned as leaders of varying kinds in both Jewish, Greek and Roman religions. Yet, the ideal was for women to remain in the private sphere (p. 47).
Linda Belleville's book, Women Leaders and the Church: Three crucial questions, gives information on the understanding of women in Judaism, and Greek and Roman society. Understanding how women were perceived in these areas or cultures of the ancient world will help us to understand what kind of thought environment the early church existed in.
Even though women had less religious involvement than Greek or Roman women in general, there were still opportunities or at least the possibility for women to serve their communities as leaders (p. 20). Women were expected to function in the private, not public, realm of society, but outside of Palestine Jewish women had more opportunities to serve as leaders (p. 20). Belleville reports that there are "synagogue records, burial markers, inscriptions, and works of art" that show a significant number of Jewish women who had a significant role in their congregations (pp. 20-1). She also reports that during the late first century women began seeing less of a role in the public sphere (p. 21). It was during that time that their societal and religious roles became more limited (p. 21). She boldly states that it is quite difficult to find any Jewish texts that forbid women to teach during the first century (p. 21). Her statements demonstrate that for Judaism around the late first century (the social-historical context for the beginning of the early church) women were beginning to be taken out of the public sphere and limited to the private, but it was not actually prohibited for women to teach or have authority. In fact, Belleville notes that women were technically "qualified to function in virtually every way men functioned" (p. 22). However, as Belleville also notes, being qualified does not mean they were encouraged (p. 22). Even though they were able, opinions were expressed, stating that women should not be permitted to publicly read Scripture (p. 22).
Yet, women in Judaism functioned in leadership roles such as financial donors of local synagogues (p. 23). Records demonstrate that women who supported the synagogues rose to significant status in their communities (pp. 23-4). Women could also be heads of synagogues and even elders in Judaism (pp. 24-5). Belleville notes that it was a distinct privilege to be named the head of a synagogue, which was the equivalent to third in command next to scholars and "great ones of the congregation," respectively (pp. 24-5). However, the responsibilities of the synagogue ruler included the upkeep of the synagogue building, the donors and the synagogue ruler were frequently connected (p. 25). To be a donor would be an authority at least in part alongside of the synagogue ruler. The synagogue ruler was also in charge of planning and leading the worship service (p. 25). If a woman was a synagogue ruler, then she would have had the charge of directing the worship service in the synagogue. The synagogue ruler was also responsible for, it seems, "keeping the congregation faithful to the law" according to Luke 13:10-17 (p. 25). In terms of women leading as elders, there are seven tomb inscriptions that identify women as elders (p. 25). The word, elder, refers to a particular ruling group that had particular leadership roles, which included ruling on legal matters of the welfare for the community and functioning as the town council (pp. 25-6). The elders' primary function was community leader in Judaism (p. 26). Women could also function as priestesses (p. 27). Precisely what this means is unclear, but we do know that women could serve priestly functions without ever being given the title of priestess in the Old Testament, so it is possible that women were given the title of priestess to note their liturgical contributions (p. 27). If a women came from a priestly lineage, it is possible that she would have been given the opportunity to read Scripture for the worship service in synagogues out of respect (p. 28). Women were given the title of mother of the synagogue as well (p. 28). It is unclear what the mothers (and fathers) of the synagogue did as leaders, but the father of the synagogue did have a higher rank than a "high-ranking official of the local Jewish ruling council" (p. 29). Other than that, we know very little about how this father or mother of the synagogue leadership role functioned. Although it was not to the same degree as men, Jewish women were capable of functioning as leaders and they sometimes did.
In Greek and Roman society, women were expected to be actively involved in the local and religious communities (p. 31). The distinction between the public and privates spheres was not as well-defined in Greek and Roman society, so, though the persuasion of wealthy women, women gained a growing popularity on par with men in religion (p. 31). Women served as priestesses in the cults throughout the Roman Empire, which meant that they were, alongside priests, responsible for the sanctuary rituals and ceremonies, its maintenance, and its protection (p. 33). Liturgically, Belleville states that they were also responsible for ritual sacrifices, pronouncing the prayers, and presiding at the festivals of the deity (p. 33). In some cases, women were identified as high priestesses, which is particularly important since the leadership role of high priest was only given to one male leader in a single city (p. 33). In terms of modern categories of leadership, women served administrative, benefactory and ministerial roles throughout the pagan cults of the Roman Empire (p. 34). Wealth and office were tied together for women in the Roman Empire (p. 34). Belleville notes that it was expected for the top priestly offices to have the financial resources to cover civic and religious events (p. 34). Women served in the social, political, and financial services of the Roman Empire alongside of their male counterparts (p. 35). Therefore, women were in a position to be in power in the Roman Empire (p. 35). Keeping this information in mind alongside of the role of women in the cult of Isis in which they were equal to men, we must realize that in the first century women were not as religiously limited as we sometimes think (p. 37). In other words, as Belleville puts it, "[I]n the first century A.D. the religious cults led the way in modeling male and female parity" (p. 38).
When we consider the negative opinions regarding women in Judaism and also the frowning of men on women for breaking out of the private sphere, we first think that women were oppressed in the first century. However, despite negative thought-trains, women still functioned as leaders of varying kinds in both Jewish, Greek and Roman religions. Yet, the ideal was for women to remain in the private sphere (p. 47).
Early Church Research Paper - Source 2
What I am finding is women were originally allowed to serve as leaders in the church at the onset of Christianity. So how did we get to a point in Christianity that women are not allowed to serve as leaders in the church? I think it is because of the institutionalization of the church, which modeled itself after 2nd, 3rd and 4th century culture. During that time women were not held in favorable view in general. Now I am continuing the reading process to test to see if this theory is true, false, close, or way off.
Ruth Tucker's chapter in Discovering Biblical Equality: Complementarity without Hierarchy, "The Changing Roles of Women in Ministry: The early church through the 18th century," identifies a very important train of thought on the part of the early church fathers--woman was tempted by Satan and was the first to sin, and as such she has no place talking about theology (p. 26). This line of argumentation was used primarily among the later church fathers, although there is some negative thought-trains from the second century as well, but not as profuse. However, it was not unheard of for women to be knowledgeable in such matters as the Bible and theology. In fact, Tucker notes that in the fourth century Jerome actually referred arguments to Marcella, a women known for her understanding of the Bible, so that she could judge those situations while he was away and unable to deal with them (p. 26). The early church contained a tension between the thought-train against women discussing theology and women discussing theology anyway.
Tucker's chapter demonstrates the tension that existed for women in the early church. Although they could function as leaders, they were primarily thought to have no business being in leadership. But this train of thought was not from the earliest records of the church. This thought-train developed over time and was firmly in place by the end of the early church. Tucker's chapter will suffice to show that what was said by the fathers throughout the early church did not serve as an absolute rule, for women still discussed theology, learned the Bible, and held authoritative positions, although few and far between.
Ruth Tucker's chapter in Discovering Biblical Equality: Complementarity without Hierarchy, "The Changing Roles of Women in Ministry: The early church through the 18th century," identifies a very important train of thought on the part of the early church fathers--woman was tempted by Satan and was the first to sin, and as such she has no place talking about theology (p. 26). This line of argumentation was used primarily among the later church fathers, although there is some negative thought-trains from the second century as well, but not as profuse. However, it was not unheard of for women to be knowledgeable in such matters as the Bible and theology. In fact, Tucker notes that in the fourth century Jerome actually referred arguments to Marcella, a women known for her understanding of the Bible, so that she could judge those situations while he was away and unable to deal with them (p. 26). The early church contained a tension between the thought-train against women discussing theology and women discussing theology anyway.
Tucker's chapter demonstrates the tension that existed for women in the early church. Although they could function as leaders, they were primarily thought to have no business being in leadership. But this train of thought was not from the earliest records of the church. This thought-train developed over time and was firmly in place by the end of the early church. Tucker's chapter will suffice to show that what was said by the fathers throughout the early church did not serve as an absolute rule, for women still discussed theology, learned the Bible, and held authoritative positions, although few and far between.
Wednesday, November 7, 2007
Tuesday, November 6, 2007
Early Church Research Paper - Source 1
The Early Church was not a formal institution like Judaism until some time after the ascension of Jesus Christ. I am setting out to research the development of the institutionalization of the church and how women functioned in its development. One of the sources I am referring to is Daughters of the Church: Women and ministry from New Testament times to the present by Ruth Tucker and Walter Liefeld.
Daughters of the Church (DC) identifies that there is archaeological evidence that women did hold church offices in the first several centuries of the church (p. 91). There are two instances where a woman is called a diakonos (p. 91). However, what is not made clear in DC is whether or not the use of diakonos was actually the feminine form and they had given the lexical form in the book or if it was actually the masculine form as indicated in the book. It is likely that the former is the case since at the end of the paragraph DC indicates that diakonos is used in Romans 16:1 (p. 92), but the feminine form is not what is used in that particular instance.
At any rate, it is significant that a woman would be called a diakonos. Was it even possible for women to have any sort of leadership role in the early church? This book demonstrates that there were those opinions that thought women to be capable of leadership roles, such as managing a household, which was the view of Clement of Rome (p. 92). Additionally, women were thought highly of by the early church fathers such as Clement of Rome, Polycarp and Ignatius (pp. 92-3). Their admiration came out with the most force when speaking of those women who were martyred. Martyrdom was not merely dying, but it was testifying (p. 93). In relation to martyrdom, Pliny, the governor of Bithynia, and his correspondence to Trajan in the year 111 identifies two women as deaconesses, and he thought it necessary to torture them in order to extract information from them (p. 94). What is the point of torturing these deaconesses? Did Pliny believe these two women were actual leaders and thus possessors of valuable information? Were these two women the only leaders he was aware of? The questions abound, but we should bear in mind that women were known as deaconesses early on in the church.
Aside from this point regarding women, DC demonstrates that the majority of the church fathers had negative views of women in terms of leadership roles. For example, DC includes a quote from Origen that clearly identifies his unfavorable view of women teaching men (p. 106). So, although there was some early opinion for positive thinking regarding women, most of the writings concerning them were of a negative sort.
This book helps identify two things. First, women were called diakonos in the early church. Few times were women identified as such, but they were identified nonetheless. Second, the major opinion regarding women of the church fathers was quite negative. The earliest ones had positive views, but the majority had negative views.
Perhaps the next book I look at will help shed some light on why the majority had negative views.
Daughters of the Church (DC) identifies that there is archaeological evidence that women did hold church offices in the first several centuries of the church (p. 91). There are two instances where a woman is called a diakonos (p. 91). However, what is not made clear in DC is whether or not the use of diakonos was actually the feminine form and they had given the lexical form in the book or if it was actually the masculine form as indicated in the book. It is likely that the former is the case since at the end of the paragraph DC indicates that diakonos is used in Romans 16:1 (p. 92), but the feminine form is not what is used in that particular instance.
At any rate, it is significant that a woman would be called a diakonos. Was it even possible for women to have any sort of leadership role in the early church? This book demonstrates that there were those opinions that thought women to be capable of leadership roles, such as managing a household, which was the view of Clement of Rome (p. 92). Additionally, women were thought highly of by the early church fathers such as Clement of Rome, Polycarp and Ignatius (pp. 92-3). Their admiration came out with the most force when speaking of those women who were martyred. Martyrdom was not merely dying, but it was testifying (p. 93). In relation to martyrdom, Pliny, the governor of Bithynia, and his correspondence to Trajan in the year 111 identifies two women as deaconesses, and he thought it necessary to torture them in order to extract information from them (p. 94). What is the point of torturing these deaconesses? Did Pliny believe these two women were actual leaders and thus possessors of valuable information? Were these two women the only leaders he was aware of? The questions abound, but we should bear in mind that women were known as deaconesses early on in the church.
Aside from this point regarding women, DC demonstrates that the majority of the church fathers had negative views of women in terms of leadership roles. For example, DC includes a quote from Origen that clearly identifies his unfavorable view of women teaching men (p. 106). So, although there was some early opinion for positive thinking regarding women, most of the writings concerning them were of a negative sort.
This book helps identify two things. First, women were called diakonos in the early church. Few times were women identified as such, but they were identified nonetheless. Second, the major opinion regarding women of the church fathers was quite negative. The earliest ones had positive views, but the majority had negative views.
Perhaps the next book I look at will help shed some light on why the majority had negative views.
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